陈苏镇
论文题目：〈春秋〉学对汉代政治变迁的影响
作者简介：陈苏镇，男，1955年10月出生，1997年09月师从于北京大学祝总斌教授，于2001年01月获博士学位。
摘 要
汉朝是继秦朝之后建立的又一个统一王朝。它完成了秦朝没能完成的历史使命，成功地结束了战国局面，不仅在全国实现了政治统一，也初步完成了文化整合，为中华民族的形成作出了重要贡献。这一过程曲折复杂，历时二百余年。其间，除政治、经济、军事、民族等因素外，儒家的《春秋》学也起了重要作用。本文从政治文化角度入手，对这一过程进行了探讨。
战国以来，从分裂走向统一，从战争走向和平，从松散的分封制走向高度统一的中央集权制，是政治发展的大势；而对天下一统、风俗齐同的太平盛世的向往和追求，是意识形态和政治文化的主流。两者都是影响汉朝政策之制定从而推动汉代政治变迁的重要动力。从作用方向看，这两种动力并不矛盾。但秦汉之际，由于自然和地理条件的制约，由于各地政治、经济、文化发展的不平衡，关中和关东、西方和东方之间仍存在较大差异和对立。相对而言，关中地区在政治、军事上占有优势，关东地区则在文化上占有优势。这一客观形势决定了政治的统一只能是关中统一关东，西方兼并东方，而文化的统一必然是关东统一关中，东方压倒西方。
关中的政治、军事优势在战国后期特别是秦的统一战争中已清晰地表现出来，在汉朝重建帝业的过程中再次得到证明。关东的文化优势则在秦朝灭亡后才引起人们的重视，又迟至武帝以后才被最高统治者认可，从而在朝廷制定政策的过程中逐渐占据主导地位。汉朝能够战胜西楚再建帝业，关键在它得以承秦。汉朝能够避开亡秦覆辙，使其帝业巩固下来，固然与汉初七十年之东西异制、清静无为的政策有关，但真正具有决定性意义的还是武帝以后的尊儒更化，是由此而发生的帝国文化重心向东方的转移。
秦朝灭亡后，法家受到批判，但儒家学说并未立即取而代之成为汉朝的正统学说。这不仅是因为汉初统治者不好儒术，也是因为西汉再建帝业经历了一个曲折复杂的过程。作为陈胜、吴广发起的那场反秦战争的产物，汉朝的建立固然意味着对秦朝的否定。但汉朝是承秦而立的，在制度和政策上又大量继承了秦朝的传统。于是在汉初政治中，“反秦”与“承秦”形成一对矛盾，其中“承秦”又占优势。在这种形势下，汉初统治者在秦朝的老路上一步步向前迈进。虽小心谨慎，最终还是不可避免地陷入了困境。历史再次证明秦朝的道路走不通。于是，儒家学者为摆脱汉初政治之困境而设计的改革方案日益受到人们的重视。
儒家自孔子死后便分为若干家，其中尤以孟子、荀子影响最大。汉代只有孔子被神化，称为“圣人”，孟子和荀子尚为等而下之的“仁人”。因此，汉代儒家学者都奉孔子为先师，而无人以孟子或荀子后学自诩。但孟子和荀子的思想对汉儒的影响是不可否认的。由此，汉初儒家学者中也隐约存在着对立的两派。而自从董仲舒以“《春秋》公羊学”的形式提出一套系统政治学说之后，汉儒内部两派的斗争便集中表现为《春秋》三传之争。他们针对汉初政治所面临的难题，提出“以德化民”和“以礼为治”两种政治主张。自武帝以后，两派先后登上政治舞台，对朝廷政策施加影响，使汉朝政治在儒术独尊之后继续表现出大幅度的摇摆变化，使武帝至宣帝、元帝至王莽、东汉一朝又形成几个相对独立的发展阶段。
汉武尊儒有利于儒学的传播和繁荣，使儒生大量进入各级政府，从而获得参与和改造朝廷政治的机会。但更重要的是，武帝在尊儒的旗帜下采纳了《公羊》家“《春秋》决狱”的主张，将儒家思想纳入承秦而来的汉家律令，使帝国法律初步儒家化了。宣帝在武帝改革律令的基础上，又对吏治进行了改良。西汉中期之儒术，虽然只是用来缘饰法律，虽然只是法治的辅助手段，但它毕竟介入了“汉家制度”，使得“王道”在朝廷政策中与“霸道”相杂，从而使东西方的文化对立和冲突得到进一步缓解，使关中和关东不再格格不入，使文化上的战国局面宣告结束。然而西汉中期，帝国的规模在进一步扩大，开边拓土成为第一位的事业，支持对外战争是朝廷政策的重心。在这方面，《公羊》家的“三世异治”说也起了推动作用。但承秦而来的军国主义体制和法治传统更适合战争的需要，因而仍是朝廷制定政策的主要基础。这一局面直到宣元之际才得以扭转。在那之后，朝廷政策的重心终于转到内政上来。
宣帝时，《公羊》家受到排抑，而《谷梁》之学大盛。受其影响，自元帝以后出现了一场托古改制运动。元帝改制一度轰轰烈烈，但由于宦官、外戚势力的干扰和儒家今文经学固有的弱点，改制过程困难重重，无法深入。成、哀时期，王莽的出现和以《左氏》学为核心的古文经学的兴起，为改制运动走出困境创造了条件。及至王莽当权，将古文经学立于学官，将刘歆的《左氏》义理奉为正统学说，又模仿周公制礼作乐，改制运动进入了高潮。在帝国版图之内实现文化的整合与统一，是秦汉王朝所肩负的最为艰巨的历史使命。正是在完成这一使命的过程中，秦朝因操之过急而灭亡，西汉因迟迟不能满足人们的愿望而被赶下历史舞台。王莽企图通过制礼作乐为这一过程画上圆满的句号，结果也遭到惨败，与秦朝殊途同归。
东汉是西汉的继续，继承了西汉二百余年政治和文化发展的成果。它的建立意味着“汉德”复兴，而在东汉人看来，“汉德”就是“尧德”，亦即《公羊》家所阐述的《春秋》之道。它定都洛阳，是西汉后期出现的政治重心东移趋势的结果，使汉朝终于跳出了以关中为本位的政治格局，进一步摆脱了军国主义体制和法治传统的束缚，为《公羊》家重新拨乱反正、重建汉家制度提供了机会。它吸收了西汉的经验教训，对元帝至新莽的改制运动基本上持否定态度。受其影响，东汉统治者一度效法宣帝，兴起严猛苛刻之风，但这不是东汉政治的主流。相比之下，意义更为深远的是：儒学士大夫集团对《春秋》三家之学，对儒家的两种政治主张，作出了最后的抉择，使《公羊》学重新获得独尊地位。在《公羊》学的影响下，东汉的政策重心始终在内而不在外。对外坚持“务广德”，反对“务广地”，没发动过大规模的对外战争。对内虽在章帝时一度恢复盐铁、均输等制，但很快又废除了。坚持《公羊》家的太平标准、反对制礼作乐的呼声占有压倒优势。法律进一步儒家化，循吏作风也更加普及，强调“以义正我”的“以德化民”之术日益成为儒学士大夫的自觉行动。这一切都使得东汉一朝在大量沿用西汉制度的同时，又表现出与西汉明显不同的特色。
中国古代政治文化的发展是个一环接一环逐步深入的过程，其中每一环都有一个为当时人们普遍关注和共同探讨的核心问题。从东周到东汉，政治文化的核心问题是“拨乱反正”之“道”。先秦诸子的学术争鸣是理论准备阶段。法、道、儒等家的政治学说是其主要成果。秦汉是政治实践阶段。经过实践的检验，在法、道、儒三家中，儒家是最后的胜利者，而在儒家内部两派中，《公羊》家又是最后的胜利者。东汉以后，拨乱反正之“道”的问题基本解决了，《公羊》家“以德化民”的思路和主张确立了主导地位，从而在先秦儒家思想的基础之上又形成厚厚的一层积淀，为其后政治和政治文化的进一步发展奠定了新的理论基础。
总之，汉朝在步秦后尘再建帝业的过程中，经过反复探索与实践，终于找到了在千差万别的民间乡俗、区域文化和民族传统之上实现文化整合的唯一可行的道路，确立了进行这一整合的基本模式和机制。此后，政治上的分裂和统一又反复了多次，但以儒家思想为中心的文化整合运动始终没有停止。汉代《公羊》家的“以德化民”说虽渐渐被人们淡忘了，却始终在冥冥中支配着这一运动的基本方向。
The Influence of Doctrine of
Spring and Autumn Annals
On Policy Development in the
Han Dynasty
summary
Chen Suzhen
The Han dynasty followed the Qin dynasty. It completed the historical mission that the Qin dynasty had left unfinished. After a zigzag two hundred years course, it ended the complexion of the Warring States and unified China, both politically and culturally. Confucian scholar's study of "Sping and Autumn Annals" had an impact beyond exerting a powerful influence on elements of politics, economics, military affairs and ethnic relations. This essay approaches the text from the perspective of political culture, investigating this process.
From the Warring States period, general trends of in political development included moving from fragmentation to unification, from war to peace, from feudalism to centralism. The desire for a "flourishing age of Great Peace" in a unified country was the main political and ideological current. Both ideas influenced Han policymaking. The two ideas — a unified country and a unified culture — are not contrary. But in Qin and Han China, between the east and the west there are major geographical, political, economic and cultural differences. The west was stronger than the east in politics and military affairs. The east was stronger than the west in culture. Because of this disparity, the drive for political unification came from the west while the impetus for cultural unification necessarily came from the east.
The political and military predominance of the west in the Warring States and Qin was shown again in the course of Han dynasty rebuilding the empire. Gradually, after the Qin, the cultural dominance of the east became important. After the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, court decisions and policy-making were mainly influenced by the eastern culture. The key reason why Han dynasty could conquer the Western Chu was that the Han dynasty inherited Qin's political legitimacy. The key reason why Han dynasty could maintain its empire after the first decades was a reverence for Confucianism that led to transferring the cultural center of gravity from the west to the east after Emperor Wu.
After Qin dynasty had been overthrown, the Legalism was criticized. Confucianism, however, did not immediately become the state ideology. The reason was not only that the emperors of the early Han dynasty did not like Confucianism, but also that the Western Han went through a long and winding process to rebuild the empire. Though the founding of Han dynasty was the end of the Qin dynasty, the Han inherited many systems and policies from the Qin. So, in the early Han, the contradictory pair of concepts "opposing Qin" and "inheriting Qin" were prevalent, with "inheriting Qin" on the ascendant. Therefore, the Han dynasty began striding forward along old paths of the Qin dynasty. Though early Han rulers tried to proceed cautiously, affairs came to a difficult pass. History proved again that the institutions of the Qin were bad. Only then did people look to Confucian reforming schemes.
The Confucians had divided
into several schools since Confucius had died. Mencius and Xunzi were the
strongest ones of those schools. In Han China only Confucius was "Sage". Menius and Xunzi were just "Benevolent
Men". But the influence of their thought on Confucians can not be denied.
Therefore there were two Confucian schools in Han China. The conflict between
them was called "the Conflict of the Three Commentaries". They put
forward two political opinions. One opinion was called "transforming people by
virtue", and the other was called "rule by ceremony". From the
time of Emperor Wu, the two schools appeared on political stage time and again.
They dramatically influenced policies of Han dynasty, which can be divided into
three different periods: Emperor Wu to Emperor Xuan, Emperor Yuan to Wang Mang,
and the Eastern Han.
Under the banner of respecting Confucianism, Emperor Wu adopted the Gongyang School's opinion of evaluating the Spring and Autumn Annals. He brought Confucian thought into the laws of the country. After that, Emperor Xuan improved bureaucracy. Although the Confucian thought in the middle of Western Han was more ornament than law, it still was recorded in "Systems of Han Dynasty", which helped relax the cultural conflict between the east and the west. However, in the middle of West Han the Empire became bigger and bigger. It was most important to expand its domain. The theory of "Three phases" from Gongyang School impelled this course. But the militarist system and law tradition from Qin Dynasty were more suitable for war and were the main foundation of the Empire's policies. This position was not changed until Emperor Yuan. From Emperor Yuan's reign, the political center of gravity turned to internal politics.
In the period of Emperor Xuan, Gongyang School was suppressed and Guliang School came into prominence. Under Emperor Yuan, a reform movement started. The movement was vigorous for a time, but as eunuchs and relatives of empress came to dominate the court, it stalled. In the period of Emperor Cheng and Emperor Ai, Wang Mang appeared and supporters of Zuo Commentaries became influential. The reform movement began to recover. When Wang Mang came into power, the School of Zuo Commentaries became official ideology. He imitated the Duke of Zhou's ritual systme. Then the reform movement reached its climax. Despite the reforms, the Western Han and Xin fell in quick succession, making cultural unification difficult.
Eastern Han inherited their politics and culture from Western Han, It attempting to restore the "Virtue of Han". The Eastern Han people thought the "Virtue of Han" was the "Virtue of Yao" and the Way of Spring and Autumn Annals mentioned by the Gongyang School. The dynastic capital was Luoyang. That meant the political center of gravity moved east. The Han dynasty finally broke away from old political patterns, military systems and legal traditions. It was an opportunity to establish a new system for the Han dynasty. Eastern Han administrators had learned from the mistakes and successes of the Western Han, and negated most of Wang Mang's reforms. Early Eastern Han rulers imitated Emperor Xuan and ruled rigorously. But this was not the mainstream of Eastern Han politics. The mainstream was that the Gongyang School was alone respected. That meant the Confucians and officers had made a final choice between the two political opinions. Under the influence of the Gongyang School's doctrine, the East Han's political center of gravity tended to contract and look inward. It did not seek to start big wars with other nations or tribes. It resumed monopolization of salt, iron and commerce for a time, but repealed them before long. Confucianism further influenced the laws. Officers ruled people more kindly. Though the Eastern Han inherited many systems from the Western Han, these reforms made them different.
The ancient political culture of China developed stage by stage. There is a central question that preoccupied political administrators in each stage. The central question from the Eastern Zhou to Eastern Han was the best "Way" to end chaos and restore order. Emerging from long-lasting contention between Legalist, Confucian and Daoist ideologies, Confucianism was finally the winner. Of the schools within the Confucian ideology, the Gongyang School triumphed. During the Eastern Han, people solved the question of how to end chaos and restore order. They decided to transform people by virtue. This was a new foundation, which would exert a long influence on Chinese politics and political culture.
In conclusion, in the course of rebuilding the empire, through exploration and practice, the Han dynasty found a way to politically and culturally unify all China. After this, though China has split and reunified several times, the political and cultural force of Confucianism has not ceased. Though the Gongyang School's doctrine "to transform people by virtue" has faded from memory, it helped establish the foundation for subsequent Confucian administration.
