汪习根
论文题目：发展权与当代宪法
作者简介：汪习根，男，1965年03月出生，1998年09月师从于武汉大学李龙教授，于2001年06月获博士学位。
摘 要
发展权研究是中国社会科学领域中的一个空白，更是宪法学研究中无人开拓的一块荒地。而在国际社会，发展权问题一直是在人权法理论与国际人权斗争实践中存在严重分歧和尖锐对立的焦点问题。
发展权是由发展中国家在谋求自身的发展运动中率先提出的，已被载入联大于1986年通过的《发展权利宣言》之中。但长期以来，西方有些大国设置重重障碍阻挠发展权在全球的实现，甚至矢口否认发展权的人权性质和法律地位。导致这一局面的原因除了人权文化传统、政治价值观念等因素外，比之于自由权、平等权、财产权等几百年前就已被提示了的传统人权形式，对作为新型人权的发展权理论深层研究显得相对薄弱与贫乏，不能不说是一个相当重要的原因。为此，全面系统地探讨发展权的理论依据、基本内容和法律地位及其法律保障，对进行国际人权对话、合作与斗争、解决生存与发展这两大全球性难题具有重大的理论意义和深远的现实意义。既然人权是宪法的起点和归宿、宪法是人权的体现和保障，发展权便理所当然地是21世纪宪法所应关注的一个核心课题。如果说近代宪法以个人为本位，重在保障个人自由权利，现代宪法以社会为本位，重在保障生存权等社会权，那么，当代宪法则应既保护生存权，更应侧重保障发展权。确认和保障发展权，是当代宪法发展的必然要求，也是发展权从应然人权走向实然人权的权威依据和前提条件。
对如何以合理的方式来界定发展权的概念，文章通过对西方自由主义人权观和社会利益本位论的超越与扬弃，在反复探究了发展权的人权属性与人权要素后，富有创见性地提出了发展权的概念，认为发展权是全体个人及其集合体有资格自由地向国内和国际社会主张参与、促进和享受经济、社会、文化和政治各方面全面发展所获利益的一项基本人权。简言之，是个体和集体双重主体基于持续而全面的发展需要而获取的发展机会均等和发展利益共享的权利。从主体上看，在分析并指出了现有各种主体论学说的缺陷与不足之后，认为发展权主体既包括个人主体，也包括由个人所组成的集体主要是民族和国家。而个人主体与集体主体在发展权中具有同等重要地位，两者不可偏废。从内容上看，发展权既反对单纯追求经济增长，将增长等同于发展，也反对片面强调政治自由，将人权简单地等同于公民、政治权利。它是以全体人类及人类的代际之间全面、公平地可持续发展为依归的。
对发展权为什么是一项基本人权，文章从三个层面进行了分析：首先，从“人的本质”和“人的全面发展观”出发，提出发展权是以主体内在需要的不断外化为逻辑起点、以人类生产能力的日益提升为现实基础、以现实社会尤其是国际社会秩序的非理性化为直接动因而形成的，这里旨在从法哲学意义上证实发展权是一项人权、具有人权的地位与属性。其次，发展权不仅是一项人权，而且是人权体系中的一项基本人权。其主体的普遍性、地位的基础性和逻辑的优位性、功能的母体性及运行的整合性在人权要素的每一个层面上都证明了发展权的基本人权性质。最后，从价值上看，发展权追求发展秩序关系的理性化、社会结构运行的正义化和主体全面发展的自主化以及发展利益配置的公平化的价值目标，具有对全部人权的价值冲突与矛盾进行价值整合的最优价值功能，发展权的基本人权地位由此再度得到证实。
对宪法如何规范发展权，认为比较分析各国宪法对发展权的态度及其规范方式，并从中提炼出可资借鉴的因素，是构建发展权法律保障机制的一条重要路径。考察当今世界各国宪法典及宪法性文件，发现有近一半的宪法对发展权进行了不同程度的规范。文章从三大层面进行了比较分析：（一）从规范内容上比较，有的一般性地宣示或确证了发展权的理念，有的直接规定了发展权的内容及其保障与救济机制；有的并不明确使用发展权概念，也有近十国直接将发展权利载入宪法。（二）从规范形式上比较，其一，在形式结构上，可分为序言宣示、复合规范和综合确认三种类型；其二，在法律要素上，有的以基本国策确认，有的以法律规则或法律概念规范，有的则以法律原则规定；其三，在规范类别上，既有以授权性或命令性等确定性规范规定的，也有的采用准用性或委任性等非确定性规范加以规定。（三）从规范价值上比较，可知不同的价值基础和人权价值观念及人权文化传统，制约着发展权宪法规范形式上的多样性与复杂性。透过发展权宪法规范的比较可以得出这样一个规律性的结论：确认发展权是当代宪法的基本特征之一，而发展权在当代宪法中又具有规范不足、难于救济的特点，故而丰富与完善发展权内容及其保障制度成为当代宪法发展的必然趋势。
对应该如何构建发展权的宪法保障制度，在对发展权的法律性质和法律效力从法理依据、法律渊源和法律实践三方面加以确证的基础上，文章认为，发展权入宪是保障发展权的基本前提，既然发展权与生存权一样同属基本人权，那么，只要宪法还是人类权利的理性宣言、只要基本人权是推导其他人权的母体这一公理没被打破，它就应当以明示的方式直截了当地载入发展权，使之成为推导其他人权的依据而非相反。要实现发展权，就应该构建具有法律约束力的宪法保障制度。发展权的宪法调整原则主要包括平等性调整原则、双重性规范原则、权力能动性原则。其中，平等性调整原则是基础，双重性规范原则是核心，权力能动性原则是保障。所谓平等性调整原则即宪法对发展权个人主体和集体主体，不论其社会身份或自然属性如何均应予以平等地保障，体现了主体权利义务的一致性；双重性规范原则旨在改变传统法只平行地保护不同主体利益的做法，而对各发展权主体依其发展的不同程度区别对待，实行非对称性权利保障方式，是现代法律中“政策性平衡”利益调整原则在发展权机制中的具体运用；而对究竟是在不同的规范中分别规定发达者之间和发达者与不发达者之间的发展权利义务关系，还是在相同规范中加以规定，文章不赞同传统的双重规范原则，而提出了以同一规范而非分别以不同的规范加以调整的“相同规范的双重性”调整原则。权力能动性原则是指在制约公共权力的基础上充分保证权力运行的主动性和高效率，对东南亚的“好政府”模式进行典型分析证实了这一发展权原则的独特价值。
建立国家责任和国际责任法律机制，是实现发展权的权威保障。国家对发展权承担的责任主要包括尊重、保护、促成和提供四个方面，而从国际法律责任看，在充分尊重国家主权原则的前提下，如果国家法律已将国际发展法转化为国内法，那么，国家便应承担信息交流、定期报告、调查监督等方面的法律责任。文章最后对宪法规范发展权的方式提出了独特的设想，认为可在宪法序言或总纲中抽象性地宣告发展权的宪法地位，并将发展权确立为国家的根本任务，具体规定在国家政策或发展规划之中，将个人的发展权确定在“公民的基本权利”或“基本人权”的宪法规范之中，并可规定转换性条款将国际发展法与国内法联结起来。在规定发展权时，应处理好如下四大关系：抽象性原则规定与具体保障的关系，直接明示型规定与间接推论型规定的关系、权利保障法律效力肯定与效力不确定的关系、关于发展权问题的国内法与国际法的关系。
关键词： 人权 发展权 宪法 人权保障
The Right to Development And
Contemporary Constitution
Abstract
The study on the right to development is empty land in Chinese social territory, Much more is in constitutional study which no person studied. But in the international society, the problem of the right to development is a central issue in which there exists distinct divergence and incisive opposition in the contemporary theory of international human rights.
The right to development is pointed out first by developing countries in which seek the development by themselves and written in the Declaration on the right to Development U.N. meeting in 1986. But, for a long time, some developed country coming from the west have obstacled the realization through obstructing more much obstacle. The nature of right and legal position is even denied by them. The reason which lead to condition is the great reason that as a new right, the theory of right to development lacks deep study, comparing with the right to liberty, right to equality and right to property that were posed as the form of traditional right several hundred years ago. So complete and systematic study of theoretic foundation issue intension legal position and legal guarantee that belong to the right to development have great theoretic and deep actual meaning. So that Human right is the starting point and final setting place of constitution. Constitution is safeguard and reflection, certainly, the right to development is the central problem for 21 century of constitution. If we say that modern constitution is in the standard of person and ensure the individual right to modern constitution is regarded as in the standard of society, and safeguard the right to existence, and the right to society. So that Contemporary Constitution not only ensures the right to existence, but also the right to development. Acknowledging and ensuring the right to development is the requirement for contemporary constitutional development, also is the authoritative accordance and prerequisite condition that are made possible right to real right.
In the way which how to define the concept of the right to development, the dissertation always study the right dignity and element of the right to development through which deny the libertinism and social interest standard, then propose the concept of the right to development by myself, and consider that the right to development is a basis right that all people, and their body enjoy the politic economic social and cultural interest that they take part in the all thing that are home and international. Shortly it is the right that subject of single and group obtain the equal developing chance. In the subject: After analyze the defects of all the subject theory, we propose that the subject of the right to development include individual subject. The body consisting of single especially nation and people, also all of the subject are equal. In the content, the right to development not only oppose the economic increase simply, but also oppose the concept that emphasize the political liberty and regard human right as the citizen political right. It is based on the sustainable development of the human being.
The author maintains that the right to development is a basic human right. Firstly, the right to develop is based on the need and the development potential of the human being. Secondly, the right to develop is the basic one among the human rights, because of its common subjects and basic status. Finally, from the point of value, the right to development is basis of social justice and the democracy.
By comparing the attitude and regulation method of constitutional law to the right to develop, we can find the ways constructing the protecting regime of the right. Today most countries regulate the right to develop in its constitutional law. The article promulgates the trend in three aspects. From the content, some countries generally declare the idea of right to development, some regulate the safeguarding regime and the remedial system, also some putting the right in the constitution directly. From the point of the rule, there are the rules that declare and confirm the right, there are the rules that confer the right firmly. In addition, the difference of various value-orientation determines the ways of regulation. At last, the author concludes that the confirmation strengthening of the right to develop in constitution is the world inevitable trend.
As to the important position of the right to develop, the effective way to the protection of the right is to put the corresponding contents in the constitution, and makes it in the leading way of all the human rights protection. To realize the right to development, we must construct a constitutional safeguarding system that has legal binding force, Constitutional regulative principles of the right to development include equal-regulating principle dual-norm principle and dynamic power principle. Among them, equal-regulating principle lies as the fundamental, dual-norm principle as the core, and dynamic power principle as the safeguard. Equal-regulating principle means that the constitution equally guarantees both the individual and collective subjects of the right to development. regardless of their social status or natural attribute, and embodies the consistency of right and duty of the subject. The object of the dual-norm principle is to change the way of parallel protection of interest of different subjects in traditional law, and to give different treatment to different subjects of right to development according to respective degree of their development. The form of asymmetrical right protection is the concrete application of the principle of regulation policy balance of interest in the machinery of right to development in modern law. With the question of whether in separate or in identical norms to regulate the relationship of right and duty between the developed subjects and between the developed and less developed subjects, the author disagrees to the traditional dual-norm principle, and puts forward the dual-regulation principle of identical norm not the different norm to regulate the above-mentioned relationships. The principle of dynamic power means that on the fundamental of restricting the public power, we must sufficiently ensure the positive and efficient functioning of power. The typical analysis of the south-east Asian model of good governance proves the special value of this principle of right to development.
The set up of the legal mechanism of national and international responsibility is the authoritative safeguard to the right to development. The responsibility of state to the right to development includes mainly respect protection、promotion and provision, while from the international responsibility. On the premise of fully respect of sovereignty, states must undertake the responsibility of exchange of information, regular report investigation and supervision if the states have transformed the international law into their national law. At the end of the article, the author puts forward a distinctive conception, holding that the right to development can be abstractly declared to be the constitutional status in the preface of the general principle of the constitution, and be established as the fundamental task of the state, being specifically provided in the state policy or development program. Also, the author holds that the states must establish the right to development of individuals in the constitutional norms of fundamental right of citizens or in the constitutional norms of fundamental human right, and adopt transformational clauses to connect the international law of development to national law. Which make the provision, we must well take the following four relationships, the relation between abstract and concrete provisions, the relation between the direct explicit provisions and indirect deductive provisions, the relation between affirmative legal force of right safeguard and indefinite effect, and last, the relation between national law and international law with regard to the right to development.
Key words: Human right
Right to development
Constitution
Safeguard of human right
